Tampa Uses Praying Mantises Again Cockroaches

Social club of insects

Mantis Temporal range: 145–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J Thousand Pg North Early Cretaceous–recent
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Grade:	Insecta
Superorder:	Dictyoptera
Society:	Mantodea Burmeister, 1838
Families
run across text
Synonyms
Manteodea Burmeister, 1829 Mantearia Mantoptera

Mantises are an gild (Mantodea) of insects that contains over 2,400 species in nigh 460 genera in 33 families. The largest family is the Mantidae ("mantids"). Mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. They have triangular heads with bulging eyes supported on flexible necks. Their elongated bodies may or may not accept wings, but all Mantodea accept forelegs that are profoundly enlarged and adapted for catching and gripping prey; their upright posture, while remaining stationary with forearms folded, has led to the common name praying mantis.

The closest relatives of mantises are termites and cockroaches (Blattodea), which are all inside the superorder Dictyoptera. Mantises are sometimes confused with stick insects (Phasmatodea), other elongated insects such as grasshoppers (Orthoptera), or other unrelated insects with raptorial forelegs such as mantisflies (Mantispidae). Mantises are mostly deadfall predators, but a few ground-dwelling house species are found actively pursuing their prey. They normally live for about a yr. In cooler climates, the adults lay eggs in autumn, and then dice. The eggs are protected by their hard capsules and hatch in the spring. Females sometimes exercise sexual cannibalism, eating their mates after copulation.

Mantises were considered to have supernatural powers past early civilizations, including Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, and Assyria. A cultural trope popular in cartoons imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale. Mantises are among the insects most commonly kept as pets.

Taxonomy and evolution [edit]

Green mantis in a lawn in Sydney, 2020

Over 2,400 species of mantis in about 430 genera are recognized.^[1] They are predominantly institute in tropical regions, but some live in temperate areas.^{[2] [3]} The systematics of mantises accept long been disputed. Mantises, along with stick insects (Phasmatodea), were once placed in the order Orthoptera with the cockroaches (now Blattodea) and water ice crawlers (now Grylloblattodea). Kristensen (1991) combined the Mantodea with the cockroaches and termites into the order Dictyoptera, suborder Mantodea.^{[four] [v]} The name mantodea is formed from the Ancient Greek words μάντις (mantis) pregnant "prophet", and εἶδος (eidos) meaning "form" or "type". It was coined in 1838 past the German entomologist Hermann Burmeister.^{[half-dozen] [7]} The lodge is occasionally called the mantes, using a Latinized plural of Greek mantis. The name mantid properly refers only to members of the family Mantidae, which was, historically, the only family in the order. The other common name, praying mantis, practical to any species in the social club^[viii] (though in Europe mainly to Mantis religiosa), comes from the typical "prayer-similar" posture with folded forelimbs.^{[nine] [10]} The vernacular plural "mantises" (used in this commodity) was confined largely to the United states of america, with "mantids" predominantly used every bit the plural in the U.k. and elsewhere, until the family Mantidae was further split in 2002.^{[11] [12]}

1 of the earliest classifications splitting an all-inclusive Mantidae into multiple families was that proposed by Beier in 1968, recognizing 8 families,^[13] though it was not until Ehrmann's reclassification into fifteen families in 2002^[12] that a multiple-family classification became universally adopted. Klass, in 1997, studied the external male genitalia and postulated that the families Chaeteessidae and Metallyticidae diverged from the other families at an early engagement.^[14] Nevertheless, every bit previously configured, the Mantidae and Thespidae especially were considered polyphyletic,^[15] so the Mantodea have been revised essentially as of 2022 and now includes 29 families.^[16]

Cladogram of Extant Mantodea Families[17] [16]

Mantodea † Extinct Genera Eumantodea Chaeteessoidea Chaeteessidae Spinomantodea Mantoidoidea Mantoididae Schizomantodea Metallyticoidea Metallyticidae Artimantodea Amerimantodea Cernomantodea Nanomantodea Metamantodea Gonypetoidea Gonypetidae Lobipedia Epaphroditoidea Mantimorpha Haanioidea Haaniidae Heteromantodea Eremiaphiloidea Pareumantodea

Fossil mantises [edit]

The earliest mantis fossils are about 140 million years erstwhile, from Siberia.^[15] Fossils of the grouping are rare: by 2007, simply most 25 fossil species were known.^[fifteen] Fossil mantises, including i from Japan with spines on the front end legs as in modernistic mantises, accept been found in Cretaceous amber.^[xviii] Nigh fossils in amber are nymphs; compression fossils (in stone) include adults. Fossil mantises from the Crato Formation in Brazil include the 10 mm (0.39 in) long Santanmantis axelrodi, described in 2003; every bit in modernistic mantises, the forepart legs were adapted for communicable prey. Well-preserved specimens yield details as small as v μm through Ten-ray computed tomography.^[15] Extinct families and genera include:

• †Baissomantidae
• †Gryllomantidae
• †Cretomantidae
• †Santanmantidae
• Incertae sedis:
  • †Jersimantis
  • †Chaeteessites
  • †Cretophotina
  • †Ambermantis

Similar insects in the Neuroptera [edit]

Because of the superficially like raptorial forelegs, mantidflies may be dislocated with mantises, though they are unrelated. Their similarity is an example of convergent evolution; mantidflies do not accept tegmina (leathery forewings) like mantises, their antennae are shorter and less thread-like, and the raptorial tibia is more muscular than that of a similar-sized mantis and bends dorsum further in preparation for shooting out to grasp prey.^[xix] Another case of confusion caused by convergent evolution is Titanoptera, an order of insect that lived in the Triassic period and also shared the Raptorial forelegs of a mantis.

Biological science [edit]

Anatomy [edit]

The raptorial foreleg, showing the unusually long coxa, which, together with the trochanter, gives the impression of a femur. The femur itself is the proximal segment of the grasping part of the leg.

Mantises have large, triangular heads with a beak-like snout and mandibles. They have ii bulbous compound eyes, three small uncomplicated optics, and a pair of antennae. The articulation of the cervix is also remarkably flexible; some species of mantis can rotate their heads nearly 180°.^[10] The mantis thorax consists of a prothorax, a mesothorax, and a metathorax. In all species autonomously from the genus Mantoida, the prothorax, which bears the head and forelegs, is much longer than the other 2 thoracic segments. The prothorax is also flexibly articulated, allowing for a wide range of movements of the head and fore limbs while the residue of the body remains more than or less immobile.^{[twenty] [21]} Mantises also are unique to the Dictyoptera in that they have tympanate hearing, with ii tympana in an auditory chamber in their metathorax. Well-nigh mantises tin only hear ultrasound.^[22]

Mantises have ii spiked, grasping forelegs ("raptorial legs") in which prey items are defenseless and held securely. In most insect legs, including the posterior 4 legs of a mantis, the coxa and trochanter combine equally an inconspicuous base of the leg; in the raptorial legs, however, the coxa and trochanter combine to form a segment about as long equally the femur, which is a spiky part of the grasping apparatus (come across illustration). Located at the base of the femur is a set of discoidal spines, usually four in number, but ranging from none to every bit many every bit five depending on the species. These spines are preceded by a number of tooth-like tubercles, which, along with a similar series of tubercles forth the tibia and the upmost claw nearly its tip, requite the foreleg of the mantis its grasp on its prey. The foreleg ends in a delicate tarsus used as a walking appendage, made of four or 5 segments and ending in a two-toed claw with no arolium.^{[20] [23]}

Mantises tin can exist loosely categorized every bit being macropterous (long-winged), brachypterous (short-winged), micropterous (vestigial-winged), or apterous (wingless). If not wingless, a mantis has two sets of wings: the outer wings, or tegmina, are usually narrow and leathery. They function as camouflage and equally a shield for the hindwings, which are clearer and more frail.^{[20] [24]} The abdomen of all mantises consists of ten tergites, with a respective set of ix sternites visible in males and seven visible in females. The abdomen tends to be slimmer in males than females, but ends in a pair of cerci in both sexes.^[twenty]

Vision [edit]

Mantises take stereo vision.^{[25] [26] [27]} They locate their prey by sight; their compound eyes contain up to 10,000 ommatidia. A small area at the front end called the fovea has greater visual vigil than the rest of the eye, and can produce the high resolution necessary to examine potential prey. The peripheral ommatidia are concerned with perceiving move; when a moving object is noticed, the head is chop-chop rotated to bring the object into the visual field of the fovea. Farther motions of the prey are then tracked by movements of the mantis'south head so as to go on the image centered on the fovea.^{[23] [28]} The eyes are widely spaced and laterally situated, affording a broad binocular field of vision and precise stereoscopic vision at close range.^[29] The dark spot on each eye that moves as it rotates its caput is a pseudopupil. This occurs because the ommatidia that are viewed "caput-on" blot the incident light, while those to the side reverberate it.^[30]

As their hunting relies heavily on vision, mantises are primarily diurnal. Many species, nonetheless, wing at dark, so may be attracted to artificial lights. Mantises in the family Liturgusidae collected at night have been shown to be predominately males;^[31] this is probably true for virtually mantises. Nocturnal flight is especially of import to males in locating less-mobile females past detecting their pheromones. Flight at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flying would. Many mantises besides have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively.^{[32] [33]}

Nutrition and hunting [edit]

Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods.^[2] The majority of mantises are ambush predators that only feed upon live prey inside their reach. They either camouflage themselves and remain stationary, waiting for prey to approach, or stalk their prey with slow, stealthy movements.^[34] Larger mantises sometimes eat smaller individuals of their own species,^[35] as well as small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, fish, and particularly minor birds.^{[36] [37] [38]}

Most mantises stem tempting prey if it strays close enough, and will go farther when they are especially hungry.^[39] One time within reach, mantises strike rapidly to grasp the prey with their spiked raptorial forelegs.^[40] Some ground and bark species pursue their prey in a more active way. For example, members of a few genera such every bit the basis mantises, Entella, Ligaria, and Ligariella run over dry ground seeking prey, much every bit tiger beetles do.^[xx]

The fore gut of some species extends the whole length of the insect and tin be used to store prey for digestion afterward. This may be advantageous in an insect that feeds intermittently.^[41] Chinese mantises live longer, grow faster, and produce more young when they are able to eat pollen.^[42]

Antipredator adaptations [edit]

Mantises are preyed on by vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, and birds, and by invertebrates such every bit spiders, large species of hornets, and ants.^[43] Some hunting wasps, such as some species of Tachytes also paralyse some species of mantis to feed their young.^[44] Generally, mantises protect themselves by camouflage, about species being cryptically colored to resemble foliage or other backgrounds, both to avoid predators and to better snare their prey.^[45] Those that live on uniformly colored surfaces such as bare earth or tree bark are dorsoventrally flattened so every bit to eliminate shadows that might reveal their presence.^[46] The species from different families chosen flower mantises are aggressive mimics: they resemble flowers assuredly plenty to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar.^{[47] [48] [49]} Some species in Africa and Australia are able to plough blackness subsequently a molt towards the end of the dry out season; at this fourth dimension of twelvemonth, bush fires occur and this coloration enables them to blend in with the burn down-ravaged mural (burn melanism).^[46]

When directly threatened, many mantis species stand up tall and spread their forelegs, with their wings fanning out wide. The fanning of the wings makes the mantis seem larger and more threatening, with some species enhancing this effect with bright colors and patterns on their hindwings and inner surfaces of their front legs. If harassment persists, a mantis may strike with its forelegs and endeavor to compression or seize with teeth. As role of the bluffing (deimatic) threat brandish, some species may also produce a hissing audio by expelling air from the abdominal spiracles. Mantises lack chemical protection, and so their displays are largely bluff. When flight at night, at least some mantises are able to detect the echolocation sounds produced by bats; when the frequency begins to increment chop-chop, indicating an approaching bat, they end flight horizontally and begin a descending spiral toward the safety of the ground, often preceded by an aerial loop or spin. If caught, they may slash captors with their raptorial legs.^{[46] [50] [51]}

Mantises, like stick insects, show rocking behavior in which the insect makes rhythmic, repetitive side-to-side movements. Functions proposed for this behavior include the enhancement of crypsis by means of the resemblance to vegetation moving in the wind. Still, the repetitive swaying movements may exist most important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by their relative movement, a visual mechanism typical of animals with simpler sight systems. Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as a source of relative motility of objects in the visual field.^[52] As ants may be predators of mantises, genera such every bit Loxomantis, Orthodera, and Statilia, like many other arthropods, avoid attacking them. Exploiting this behavior, a variety of arthropods, including some early-instar mantises, mimic ants to evade their predators.^[53]

• 

Reproduction and life history [edit]

The mating season in temperate climates typically takes place in autumn,^{[54] [55]} while in tropical areas, mating can occur at whatever time of the year.^[55] To mate post-obit courting, the male commonly leaps onto the female'southward dorsum, clasping her thorax and fly bases with his forelegs. He then arches his abdomen to eolith and store sperm in a special sleeping room near the tip of the female's belly. The female person lays between 10 and 400 eggs, depending on the species. Eggs are typically deposited in a froth mass-produced by glands in the abdomen. This barm hardens, creating a protective sheathing, which together with the egg mass is called an ootheca. Depending on the species, the ootheca can exist fastened to a flat surface, wrapped around a plant, or even deposited in the basis.^[54] Despite the versatility and durability of the eggs, they are often preyed on, especially by several species of parasitoid wasps. In a few species, mostly ground and bark mantises in the family Tarachodidae, the female parent guards the eggs.^[54] The cryptic Tarachodes maurus positions herself on bark with her abdomen covering her egg capsule, ambushing passing prey and moving very little until the eggs hatch.^[4] An unusual reproductive strategy is adopted by Brunner's stick mantis from the southern The states; no males have ever been institute in this species, and the females breed parthenogenetically.^[2] The ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis has been recorded in at least two other species, Sphodromantis viridis and Miomantis sp., although these species usually reproduce sexually.^{[56] [57] [58]} In temperate climates, adults exercise not survive the wintertime and the eggs undergo a diapause, hatching in the spring.^[v]

As in closely related insect groups in the superorder Dictyoptera, mantises go through 3 life stages: egg, nymph, and adult (mantises are among the hemimetabolous insects). For smaller species, the eggs may hatch in iii–4 weeks as opposed to 4–6 weeks for larger species. The nymphs may be colored differently from the adult, and the early stages are frequently mimics of ants. A mantis nymph grows bigger every bit information technology molts its exoskeleton. Molting can happen five to 10 times before the developed stage is reached, depending on the species. After the final molt, most species have wings, though some species remain wingless or brachypterous ("short-winged"), particularly in the female person sex activity. The lifespan of a mantis depends on the species; smaller ones may live four–8 weeks, while larger species may live 4–6 months.^{[2] [21]}

• 

• 

  Recently laid M. religiosa ootheca

• 

  Hatching from the ootheca

• 

Sexual cannibalism [edit]

Sexual cannibalism in Mantis religiosa

Sexual cannibalism is common amidst nearly predatory species of mantises in captivity. Information technology has sometimes been observed in natural populations, where nigh a quarter of male-female person encounters result in the male person beingness eaten past the female.^{[59] [sixty] [61]} Around 90% of the predatory species of mantises exhibit sexual cannibalism.^[62] Adult males typically outnumber females at beginning, but their numbers may be fairly equivalent later in the adult stage,^[5] mayhap considering females selectively eat the smaller males.^[63] In Tenodera sinensis, 83% of males escape cannibalism afterwards an run across with a female, just since multiple matings occur, the probability of a male person's being eaten increases cumulatively.^[60]

The female person may begin feeding by bitter off the male'south head (as they do with regular prey), and if mating has begun, the male's movements may become even more vigorous in its delivery of sperm. Early researchers thought that because copulatory motility is controlled by a ganglion in the abdomen, non the head, removal of the male's head was a reproductive strategy past females to enhance fertilization while obtaining sustenance. Later, this behavior appeared to exist an antiquity of intrusive laboratory ascertainment. Whether the behavior is natural in the field or also the result of distractions acquired by the human observer remains controversial. Mantises are highly visual organisms and observe any disturbance in the laboratory or field, such as bright lights or moving scientists. Chinese mantises that had been fed advertizement libitum (so that they were not hungry) actually displayed elaborate courtship behavior when left undisturbed. The male engages the female in a courtship dance, to alter her interest from feeding to mating.^[64] Under such circumstances, the female has been known to respond with a defensive deimatic brandish by flashing the colored eyespots on the within of her front legs.^[65]

The reason for sexual cannibalism has been debated; experiments show that females on poor diets are likelier to engage in sexual cannibalism than those on expert diets.^[66] Some hypothesize that submissive males gain a selective advantage past producing offspring; this is supported past a quantifiable increase in the elapsing of copulation amidst males which are cannibalized, in some cases doubling both the elapsing and the chance of fertilization. This is assorted by a study where males were seen to approach hungry females with more than circumspection, and were shown to remain mounted on hungry females for a longer time, indicating that males that actively avoid cannibalism may mate with multiple females. The same report also found that hungry females generally attracted fewer males than those that were well fed.^[67] The human action of dismounting afterwards copulation is dangerous for males, for it is the time that females nigh frequently cannibalize their mates. An increase in mounting duration appears to signal that males wait for an opportune time to dismount a hungry female person, who would be probable to cannibalize her mate.^[65] Experiments have revealed that the sex ratio in an environs determines male copulatory behavior of Mantis religiosa which in turn affects the cannibalistic tendencies of the female person and support the sperm contest hypothesis because the polyandrous treatment recorded the highest copulation duration fourth dimension and everyman cannibalism. This further suggests that dismounting the female can make males susceptible to cannibalism.^[68]

Relationship with humans [edit]

In literature and fine art [edit]

One of the earliest mantis references is in the aboriginal Chinese lexicon Erya, which gives its attributes in poetry, where it represents courage and fearlessness, and a brief description. A later text, the Jingshi Zhenglei Daguan Bencao ("Great History of Medical Material Annotated and Arranged past Types, Based upon the Classics and Historical Works") from 1108, gives accurate details of the structure of the egg packages, the evolution bicycle, beefcake, and the office of the antennae. Although mantises are rarely mentioned in Aboriginal Greek sources, a female person mantis in threat posture is accurately illustrated on a series of fifth-century BC argent coins, including didrachms, from Metapontum in Lucania.^[69] In the 10th century AD, Byzantine era Adages, Suidas describes an insect resembling a boring-moving greenish locust with long front legs.^[70] He translates Zenobius ii.94 with the words seriphos (maybe a mantis) and graus, an old woman, implying a thin, dried-upwardly stick of a body.^[71]

Mantises are a common motif in Luna Polychrome ceramics of pre-Columbian Nicaragua, and are believed to represent a deity or spirit called "Madre Culebra".^[72]

Western descriptions of the biological science and morphology of the mantises became more accurate in the 18th century. Roesel von Rosenhof illustrated and described mantises and their cannibalistic beliefs in the Insekten-Belustigungen (Insect Entertainments).^[73]

Aldous Huxley made philosophical observations about the nature of death while two mantises mated in the sight of 2 characters in his 1962 novel Island (the species was Gongylus gongylodes). The naturalist Gerald Durrell'due south humorously autobiographical 1956 volume My Family and Other Animals includes a iv-page account of an most evenly matched battle between a mantis and a gecko. Shortly before the fatal dénouement, Durrell narrates:

he [Geronimo the gecko] crashed into the mantis and made her reel, and grabbed the underside of her thorax in his jaws. Cicely [the mantis] retaliated past snapping both her front end legs shut on Geronimo's hindlegs. They rustled and staggered across the ceiling and down the wall, each seeking to gain some advantage.^[74]

M. C. Escher's woodcut Dream depicts a homo-sized mantis standing on a sleeping bishop.^[75] The 1957 picture The Mortiferous Mantis features a mantis as a giant monster. In the 1967 picture Son of Godzilla and other related films, the kaiju chosen "Kamacuras" are giant mantis monsters.

A cultural trope imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale. The idea is propagated in cartoons by Cable, Guy and Rodd, LeLievre, T. McCracken, and Marking Parisi, among others.^{[76] [77] [78] [79]} It ends Isabella Rossellini's short film nigh the life of a praying mantis in her 2008 Green Porno flavour for the Sundance Channel.^{[lxxx] [81]}

Zorak, a character from Space Ghost, is also a mantis, and his species is a Dokarian.

Martial arts [edit]

Two martial arts separately developed in China have movements and fighting strategies based on those of the mantis.^{[82] [83]} As ane of these arts was developed in northern Mainland china, and the other in southern parts of the state, the arts are today referred to (both in English language and Chinese) as 'Northern Praying Mantis'^[84] and 'Southern Praying Mantis'.^[83] Both are very popular in China, and take also been exported to the West in contempo decades.^{[83] [84] [85] [86]}

In mythology and religion [edit]

The mantis was revered past the southern African Khoi and San in whose cultures man and nature were intertwined; for its praying posture, the mantis was even named Hottentotsgot ("god of the Hottentots") in the Afrikaans language that had developed among the first European settlers.^[87] However, at to the lowest degree for the San, the mantis was only one of the manifestations of a trickster-deity, ǀKaggen, who could assume many other forms, such as a snake, hare or vulture.^[88] Several ancient civilizations did consider the insect to accept supernatural powers; for the Greeks, it had the ability to evidence lost travelers the way home; in the Ancient Egyptian Volume of the Dead, the "bird-wing" is a minor god that leads the souls of the dead to the underworld; in a list of 9th-century BC Nineveh grasshoppers (buru), the mantis is named necromancer (buru-enmeli) and soothsayer (buru-enmeli-ashaga).^{[73] [89]} Some pre-Columbian cultures in western Nicaragua have preserved oral traditions of the mantis as "Madre Culebra", a powerful predator and symbol of female symbolic authority.^[72]

As pets [edit]

Mantises are among the insects most widely kept as pets.^{[90] [91]} Because the lifespan of a mantis is just about a year, people who want to go on mantises often breed them. In 2013 at least 31 species were kept and bred in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, holland, and the United States.^[92] In 1996 at least 50 species were known to be kept in captivity past members of the Mantis Study Grouping.^[93] The Contained described the "giant Asian praying mantis" equally "part stick insect with a touch of Buddhist monk",^[94] and stated that they needed a vivarium around thirty cm (12 in) on each side.^[94] The Daily Due south argued that a pet insect was no weirder than a pet rat or ferret, and that while a pet mantis was unusual, information technology would not "bark, shed, [or] need shots or a litter box".^[95]

For pest control [edit]

Naturally occurring mantis populations provide institute pest command.^[96] Gardeners who adopt to avert pesticides may encourage mantises in the hope of controlling insect pests.^[97] However, mantises do not accept primal attributes of biological pest command agents; they do not specialize in a single pest insect, and do not multiply rapidly in response to an increase in such a prey species, but are general predators.^[97] They eat any they can catch, including both harmful and benign insects.^[95] They therefore take "negligible value" in biological control.^[97]

Two species, the Chinese mantis and the European mantis, were deliberately introduced to Due north America in the hope that they would serve as pest controls for agriculture; they have spread widely in both the United states of america and Canada.^[98]

Mantis-similar robot [edit]

A prototype robot inspired past the forelegs of the praying mantis has forepart legs that allow the robot to walk, climb steps, and grasp objects. The multi-jointed leg provides dexterity via a rotatable joint. Hereafter models may include a more spiked foreleg to improve the grip and power to support more weight.^[99]

References [edit]

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2. ^ ^{a b c d} Hurd, I. E. (1999). "Ecology of Praying Mantids". In Prete, Fredrick R.; Wells, Harrington; Wells, Patrick H.; Hurd, Lawrence E. (eds.). The Praying Mantids. Johns Hopkins Academy Press. pp. 43–49. ISBN978-0-8018-6174-1.
3. ^ Hurd, I. E. (1999). "Mantid in Ecological Research". In Prete, Fredrick R.; Wells, Harrington; Wells, Patrick H.; Hurd, Lawrence East. (eds.). The Praying Mantids. Johns Hopkins University Printing. p. 231. ISBN978-0-8018-6174-1.
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9. ^ Partington, Charles Frederick (1837). The British Cyclopædia of Natural History. Vol. i. W. Southward. Orr.
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12. ^ ^{a b} Ehrmann, R. 2002. Mantodea: Gottesanbeterinnen der Welt. Natur und Tier, Münster.
13. ^ Beier, M. (1968). "Ordnung Mantodea (Fangheuschrecken)". Handbuch der Zoologie. iv (2): iii–12.
14. ^ Klass, Klaus-Dieter (1997). The external male genitalia and phylogeny of Blattaria and Mantodea. Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut. ISBN978-3-925382-45-1.
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18. ^ Ryall, Julian (25 Apr 2008). "Ancient Praying Mantis Establish in Amber". National Geographic Lodge. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
19. ^ Boyden, Thomas C. (1983). "Mimicry, predation and potential pollination by the mantispid, Climaciella brunnea var. instabilis (Say) (Mantispidae: Neuroptera)". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 91 (four): 508–511. JSTOR 25009393.
20. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Roy, Roger (1999). "Morphology and Taxonomy". In Prete, Fredrick R.; Wells, Harrington; Wells, Patrick H.; Hurd, Lawrence Eastward. (eds.). The Praying Mantids. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 21–33. ISBN978-0-8018-6174-1.
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22. ^ Yager, David; Svenson, Gavin (one July 2008). "Patterns of praying mantis auditory system evolution based on morphological, molecular, neurophysiological, and behavioural data". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Oxford Academy Press. 94 (iii): 541–568. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.00996.x.
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External links [edit]

This sound file was created from a revision of this article dated 18 April 2016 (2016-04-18), and does non reflect subsequent edits.

• Mantis Study Group – Data on mantises, phylogenetics and evolution.
• Mantodea Species File

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantis

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